Despite the fact that man is in constant development, and the world around him is changing all the time, the very nature of man and his behavior remain unchanged - they obey the same laws as many centuries ago. That is why general human psychology is still the object of interest of a huge number of scientists and specialists today. General psychology as a science remains important and relevant. Numerous seminars, theoretical and workshops and various types of trainings are devoted to teaching the basics of general psychology.

In this lesson you will get acquainted with the subject and method of general psychology, find out what problems, tasks, laws and features of this scientific discipline exist.

Introduction to General Psychology

This is a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed, and also generalizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.

Most Full description These components are given precisely in the sections of general psychology. But, at the same time, individual manifestations of the psyche are not studied by general psychology, as, for example, in sections of special psychology (pedagogical, developmental, etc.).

The main subject of study of general psychology is such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will touch on in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with human life and activity, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.

A theoretical course in general psychology usually includes the study of any specific thematic sections, areas, research, history and problems of this science. A practical course is, as a rule, mastering the methods of research, pedagogical and practical psychological work.

Methods of general psychology

Like any other science, general psychology uses a system of various methods. The basic methods for obtaining various facts in psychology are considered to be observation, conversation and experiments. Each of these methods can be modified to improve results.

Observation

Observation- This is the most ancient way of knowledge. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term (can take place even over several years), selective, continuous and special (participant observation, during which the observer is immersed in the group he himself is studying).

The standard observation procedure consists of several stages:

Setting goals and objectives;
Definition of the situation, subject and object;
Determining the methods that will have the least impact on the object under study and ensure that the necessary data is obtained;
Determining how data is maintained;
Processing of received data.

External observation (by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also self-observation. It can be either immediate - in the current moment, or delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Observation is an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

Conversation

Conversation As a psychological method, it involves direct/indirect, oral/written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life (from the person himself or from people who know him), interviews (a person answers pre-prepared questions), questionnaires and different types questionnaires (written answers to questions).

A personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined works best. At the same time, it is important to think through the conversation beforehand, draw up a plan and identify problems that should be identified. During the conversation, questions from the person being examined are also expected. A two-way conversation produces the best results and provides more information than just answering questions.

But the main method of research is experiment.

Experiment

Experiment- this is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of activity of the subject in order to create certain conditions, in which a psychological fact will be revealed.

There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are guided by instructions. A person knows about the experiment, although he may not know its true meaning. Some experiments are carried out repeatedly and on a whole group of people - this makes it possible to establish important patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

Another method is tests. These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. The tests are short-term tasks that are similar for everyone, the results of which determine whether the test subjects have certain mental qualities and the level of their development. Various tests are created in order to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.

Since the genetic principle plays a special role in the methods of psychological research, they also distinguish genetic method. Its essence is the study of mental development in order to reveal general psychological patterns. This method is based on observations and experiments and builds on their results.

In the process of using various methods, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the problem being studied. Therefore, along with the main methods of psychological research, a number of special auxiliary and intermediate techniques are often used.

Subject and object of general psychology

Any science is characterized, among other things, by the presence of its own subject and object of study. Moreover, the subject and object of science are different things. An object is only an aspect of the subject of science that is studied by the subject, i.e. researcher. Awareness of this fact is very important for understanding the specifics of general psychology, as a multifaceted and diverse science. Considering this fact, we can say the following.

Object of general psychology- this is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world on the basis of available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view modern science, performs the function of an intermediary between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person’s ideas about the external and internal, bodily and mental.

Subject of general psychology- these are the laws of the psyche, as forms of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The object is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.

Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to identify many objects for research within it, there are currently general theories of psychology in psychological science that are oriented towards different scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechniques to influence consciousness and control it. But no matter how complex the ways in which psychological thought advances, constantly transforming the object of its research and thereby plunging deeper into the subject, no matter what changes and additions it is subject to and no matter what terms it is designated, it is still possible to identify the main blocks of terms, which characterize the object of psychology. These include:

mental processes - psychology studies mental phenomena in the process of formation and development, the product of which are results formed in images, thoughts, emotions, etc.;
mental states - activity, depression, vigor, etc.;
mental properties of a person - determination, hard work, temperament, character;
mental new formations are the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person acquires throughout his life.

Naturally, all mental phenomena cannot exist in isolation, but are closely related to each other and influence each other. But we can consider each of them separately.

Feel

Feel- these are mental processes that are mental reflections of individual states and properties of the external world, arising from direct influence on the sense organs, a person’s subjective perception of external and internal stimuli with the participation nervous system. In psychology, sensations are usually understood as the process of reflecting various properties of objects in the surrounding world.

Sensations have the following properties:

Modality is a qualitative indicator of sensations (for vision - color, saturation, for hearing - volume, timbre, etc.);
Intensity is a quantitative indicator of sensations;
Duration is a temporary indicator of sensations;
Localization is a spatial indicator.

There are several classifications of sensations. The first of them belongs to Aristotle. They identified five basic senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste and smell. But in the 19th century, due to the increase in the types of sensations, the need for a more serious classification arose. Today there are the following classifications:

Wundt's classification - depending on the mechanical, chemical and physical properties of stimuli;
Sherrington classification - based on the location of receptors: exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive sensations;
Head's classification - based on origin: protopathic and epicritic sensitivity.

Perception

Perception- this is a cognitive process that forms the subject’s picture of the world. A mental operation that reflects an object or phenomenon that affects the receptors of the sense organs. Perception is a complex function that determines the reception and transformation of information and forms a subjective image of an object for the subject. Through attention, a whole object is discovered, its special features and content are highlighted, and a sensory image is formed, i.e. comprehension occurs.

Perception is divided into four levels:

Detection (perceptual action) - image formation;
Discrimination (perceptual action) is the very perception of the image;
Identification (recognition action) - identification of an object with existing images;
Identification (identification action) - categorization of an object.

Perception also has its own properties: structure, objectivity, apperception, selectivity, constancy, meaningfulness. Read more about perception.

Attention

Attention- This is the selective perception of a particular object. It is expressed in how a person relates to an object. Behind attention can often be such psychological characteristics of the individual as need, interest, focus, attitudes and others. Attention also determines how a person navigates the world around him and how this world is reflected in his psyche. The object of attention is always in the center of consciousness, and the rest is perceived more weakly. But the focus of attention tends to change.

The objects of attention are, as a rule, what has the greatest significance for a person at the moment. Maintaining attention for a long time on an object is called concentration.

Attention functions:

Detection
Selective attention
Divided attention

Attention can be voluntary and involuntary. It differs in form into:

External - aimed at the outside world;
Internal - aimed at the inner world of a person;
Motor

Properties of attention: direction, distribution, volume, intensity, concentration, switchability, stability.

All of them are closely related to human activities. And depending on its purpose, they can become more or less intense.

Representation

In progress representation there is a mental reconstruction of images of phenomena or objects that do not currently affect the senses. There are two meanings of this concept. The first denotes the image of a phenomenon or object that was previously perceived, but is not perceived now. The second describes the reproduction of images itself. As mental phenomena, ideas can be somewhat similar to perception, hallucinations and pseudohallucinations, or different from them.

Views are classified in several ways:

According to leading analyzers: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and temperature representations;
According to the degree of generalization - single, general and schematized;
By origin - based on perception, thinking or imagination;
According to the degree of volitional efforts - involuntary and voluntary.

Representations have the following properties: generality, fragmentation, clarity, instability.

Read more about representations in psychology in this Wikipedia article.

Memory

Memory is a mental function and type of mental activity designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store data about events in the surrounding world and the body’s reactions for a long period of time, and use it.

The following memory processes are distinguished:

Memorization;
Storage;
Play;
Forgetting.

Memory is also divided into typologies:

By sensory modality - visual, kinesthetic, sound, gustatory, pain;
In terms of content - emotional, figurative, motor;
According to the organization of memorization - procedural, semantic, episodic;
According to time characteristics - ultra-short-term, short-term, long-term;
According to physiological characteristics - long-term and short-term;
According to the availability of funds - non-mediated and indirect;
According to the presence of a goal - involuntary and voluntary;
According to the level of development - verbal-logical, figurative, emotional and motor.

You will find ways and techniques for developing memory in a separate section.

Imagination

Imagination- this is the ability of human consciousness to create and manage ideas, ideas and images. It plays a major role in mental processes such as planning, modeling, play, memory and creativity. This is the basis of a person’s visual-figurative thinking, which allows him to solve certain problems and understand the situation without practical intervention. A type of imagination is fantasy.

There is also a classification of imagination:

According to the degree of direction - active and passive imagination;
According to the results - reproductive and creative imagination;
By type of images - abstract and concrete;
According to the degree of volitional effort - unintentional and intentional;
By techniques - typification, schematization, hyperbolization, agglutination.

Mechanisms of imagination:

Typing;
Accenting;
Schematization;
Agglutination;
Hyperbolization.

Imagination is directly related to creativity. And sensitivity to emerging problems, ease of combining things, and observation skills contribute to finding creative solutions. The characteristics of imagination can be considered accuracy, originality, flexibility and fluency of thinking.

Read more about imagination in psychology in this article.

In addition, our website is devoted to the problems of imagination development.

Thinking

In general psychology there are many definitions of the thinking process. According to one of the most popular definitions:

Thinking- this is the highest stage of human information processing and the process of establishing connections between phenomena and objects of the external world.

It is the highest level of human cognition, as a process of reflection of the surrounding reality in his brain.

Thinking is divided into:

Abstract-logical;
Visual-figurative;
Specific subject;
Visually effective.

And the main forms of thinking are:

Concept - thoughts that highlight and generalize phenomena and objects;
Judgment - denial or affirmation of something;
Inference - conclusion.

These and other components of the thought process are discussed in ours.

Speech

Speech are called a form of communication between people through linguistic structures. In this process, thoughts are formed and formulated using language, as well as the perception of the received speech information and her understanding. Speech is the form of existence of human language, because... speech is language in action.

Language (speech) performs the following functions:

A tool for intellectual activity;
Method of communication;
A way of existence, as well as the assimilation and transfer of experience.

Speech is the most important part of human activity, which contributes to knowledge of the world around us and the transfer of knowledge and experience to others. Being a means of expressing thoughts, it is one of the main mechanisms of human thinking. It depends on the form of communication and is thus divided into oral (speaking/listening) and written (writing/reading).

Speech has the following properties:

Content - the number and significance of expressed aspirations, feelings and thoughts;
Clarity - correctness;
Expressiveness - emotional coloring and richness of language;
Effectiveness - the influence exerted on other people, their feelings, thoughts, emotions, etc.

You can read more about oral and written communication in our trainings on and.

Emotions

Emotions- these are mental processes that reflect the subject’s attitude towards possible or real situations. Emotions should not be confused with such emotional processes as feelings, affects and moods. To date, emotions have been poorly studied and are understood differently by many experts. For this reason, the definition given above cannot be considered the only correct one.

Characteristics of emotions are:

Tone (valence) - positive or negative emotions;
Intensity - strong or weak emotions;
Stenicity - influence on human activity: sthenic (inducing action) and asthenic (reducing activity);
Content - reflects different facets of the meaning of the situations that caused emotions.

Emotions in most cases manifest themselves in physiological reactions, because the latter depend on them. But today there is debate about the fact that intentional physiological states can cause certain emotions.

These and other issues of understanding and managing emotions are discussed in our.

Will

Will- this is the property of a person to consciously control his psyche and actions. The achievement of set goals and results can be considered a manifestation of will. It has many positive qualities that influence the success of human activity. The main volitional qualities are considered to be persistence, courage, patience, independence, focus, determination, initiative, endurance, courage, self-control and others. Will encourages action, allows a person to manage desires and realize them, develops self-control and strength of character.

Signs of an act of will:

Efforts of will in many cases are aimed at overcoming one’s weaknesses;
Performing any action without receiving pleasure from this process;
Availability of an action plan;
Putting effort into doing something.

Read more about will in psychology on Wikipedia.

Mental properties and states

Mental properties- these are stable mental phenomena that influence what a person does and give his socio-psychological characteristics. The structure of mental properties includes abilities, character, temperament and orientation.

Direction is a conglomerate of needs, goals and motives of a person that determine the nature of his activities. It expresses the whole meaning of a person’s actions and his worldview.

Temperament gives characteristics to a person’s activity and behavior. It can manifest itself in increased sensitivity, emotionality, resistance to stress, the ability to adapt to external conditions or the lack thereof, etc.

Character is a set of traits and qualities that are regularly manifested in a person. There are always individual characteristics, but there are also characteristics that are characteristic of all people - purposefulness, initiative, discipline, activity, determination, perseverance, endurance, courage, will, etc.

Abilities are the mental properties of a person, reflecting his characteristics, which allow a person to successfully engage in certain types of activities. Abilities are distinguished between special (for a specific type of activity) and general (for most types of activity).

Mental conditions is a system of psychological characteristics that ensure a person’s subjective perception of the world around him. Mental states influence how mental processes proceed, and when regularly repeated, they can become part of a person’s personality - its property.

Mental states are related to each other. But they can still be classified. The most common ones are:

Personality states;
States of consciousness;
States of intelligence.

Types of mental states are divided according to the following criteria:

According to the source of formation - conditioned by the situation or personally;
According to the degree of expression - superficial and deep;
By emotional coloring - positive, neutral and negative;
By duration - short-term, medium-duration, long-term;
According to the degree of awareness - conscious and unconscious;
According to the level of manifestation - physiological, psychophysiological, psychological.

The following mental states are common to most people:

Optimal performance;
Tension;
Interest;
Inspiration;
Fatigue;
Monotony;
Stress;
Relaxation;
Wakefulness.

Other common mental states include love, anger, fear, surprise, admiration, depression, detachment and others.

Read more about mental properties and conditions on Wikipedia.

Motivation

Motivation- this is an incentive to perform an action. This process controls human behavior and determines its direction, stability, activity and organization. Thanks to motivation, a person can satisfy his needs.

There are several types of motivation:

External - due to external conditions;
Internal - due to internal circumstances (content of activity);
Positive - based on positive incentives;
Negative - based on negative incentives;
Sustainable - determined by human needs;
Unstable - requires additional incentive.

Motivation can be of the following types:

From something (basic type);
To something (basic type);
Individual;
Group;
Cognitive.

There are certain motives that in most cases guide people:

Self-affirmation;
Identification with other people;
Power;
Self-development;
Achieving something;
Social significance;
The desire to be in the company of certain people;
Negative factors.

Motivation issues are discussed in more detail in this training.

Temperament and character

Temperament- this is a complex of mental characteristics of a personality associated with its dynamic characteristics (that is, with tempo, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states). The basis of character formation.

The following main types of temperament are distinguished:

Phlegmatic - signs: emotional stability, perseverance, calmness, regularity;
Choleric - signs: frequent mood swings, emotionality, imbalance;
Sanguine - signs: liveliness, mobility, productivity;
Melancholic - signs: impressionability, vulnerability.

Different types of temperament have different properties, which can have a positive or bad influence on a person's personality. Temperament type does not affect abilities, but it does affect how people express themselves in life. Depending on temperament there are:

Perception, thinking, attention and other mental processes;
Stability and plasticity of mental phenomena;
Pace and rhythm of actions;
Emotions, will and other mental properties;
Direction of mental activity.

Character- this is a complex of permanent mental properties of a person that determine his behavior. Character traits form the properties of a person that determine his lifestyle and behavior.

Personality traits vary across groups. There are four in total:

Attitude towards people - respect, sociability, callousness, etc.;
Attitude to activity - conscientiousness, diligence, responsibility, etc.;
Attitude towards oneself - modesty, arrogance, self-criticism, selfishness, etc.;
Attitude to things - care, accuracy, etc.

Each person has a character unique to him, the properties and characteristics of which are determined, for the most part, by social factors. There is also always an accentuation of character - strengthening of its individual traits. It should also be noted that there is a close relationship between character and temperament, because temperament influences the development of certain character traits and the manifestation of its characteristics, and at the same time, using some of its character traits, a person, if necessary, can control the manifestations of his temperament.

Read more about character and temperament in our training.

All of the above, of course, is not comprehensive information about what general human psychology is. This lesson is intended only to give a general idea and indicate directions for further study.

In order to dive deeper into the study of general psychology, you need to arm yourself with the most popular and influential tools in scientific circles, which are the works of famous authors of textbooks and manuals on psychology. Below is a short description of some of them.

Maklakov A. G. General psychology. In compiling this textbook, the most modern achievements in the field of psychology and pedagogy were used. On their basis, issues of psychology, mental processes, properties and their states, as well as many other features are considered. The textbook contains illustrations and explanations, as well as a bibliographic reference. Intended for teachers, graduate students and university students.

Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. For more than 50 years, this textbook has been considered one of the best psychology textbooks in Russia. It presents and summarizes the achievements of Soviet and world psychological science. The work is intended for teachers, graduate students and university students.

Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology. This manual presents the basic concepts of psychological science, its methods and problems. The book contains a lot of data on research results, examples from fiction and situations from life, and also perfectly combines a serious scientific level and accessible presentation of the material. The work will be of interest to a wide range of readers and people just beginning to master psychology.

Petrovsky A.V. General psychology. Expanded and revised edition of “General Psychology”. The textbook presents the basics of psychological science, and also summarizes information from many textbooks (“Developmental and educational psychology”, “ Practical lessons in Psychology", "Collection of problems in general psychology"). The book is designed for students who are serious about studying human psychology.

The role played by general psychology in modern society cannot be overestimated. Today it is necessary to have at least a minimum of psychological knowledge, because general psychology opens the door to the world of a person’s mind and soul. Any educated person should know the basics of this science of life, because... It is very important to get to know not only the world around you, but also other people. Thanks to psychological knowledge, you can build your relationships with others and organize your personal activities much more effectively, as well as improve yourself. It is for these reasons that all the thinkers of antiquity always said that a person must first know himself.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.

Introduction

The problem of studying in modern psychology systems of phenomena is relevant and is constantly the object of scientific discussions, psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena and divides mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the individual.

Psychology as a science has special qualities that distinguish it from other disciplines. As a system of life phenomena, psychology is familiar to every person. It is presented to him in the form of his own sensations, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. We can directly detect basic mental phenomena in ourselves and indirectly observe them in other people.

The term “psychology” first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena.

In the 20th century, psychological research moved beyond the phenomena around which it had been concentrated for centuries. In this regard, the name “psychology” has partly lost its original and rather narrow meaning, when it referred only to subjective, directly perceived and experienced phenomena of consciousness by a person.

Subject of study of modern psychology

The subject of the study of psychology is primarily the psyche of humans and animals, which includes many subjective phenomena. With the help of some, such as sensations, attention and memory, imagination, thinking, a person understands the world. Other phenomena regulate his communication with people. They are called mental properties and states of personality, including needs, goals, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities.

Mental processes, properties and states of a person, his communication and activity are separated and studied separately. Mental processes act as primary regulators of human behavior. On the basis of mental processes, certain states are formed, knowledge, skills and abilities are formed. In turn, mental processes can be divided into three groups: cognitive, emotional and volitional. person personality philosophical psyche

Cognitive mental processes include mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. These include sensation, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech and attention. Thanks to these processes, a person receives information about the world around him and about himself. Along with cognitive mental processes, emotional mental processes are distinguished as independent ones. Within this group of mental processes, mental phenomena such as affects, emotions, feelings, moods and emotional stress are considered.

Mental processes are closely interconnected and act as primary factors formation of human mental states. They, like mental processes, have their own dynamics, which are characterized by duration, direction, stability and intensity. At the same time, mental states influence the course and outcome of mental processes and can promote or inhibit activity. Mental states include such phenomena as elation, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency.

The next class of mental phenomena - mental properties of the individual - is characterized by greater stability and greater constancy. Mental properties of a person are usually understood as the most significant characteristics of a person, ensuring a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior. Mental properties include orientation, temperament, abilities and character. The level of development of these properties, as well as the peculiarities of the development of mental processes and the predominant (most characteristic of a person) mental states determine the uniqueness of a person, his individuality.

The phenomena studied by psychology are associated not only with a specific person, but also with groups. Mental phenomena associated with the life of groups and collectives are studied in detail within the framework of social psychology. We will consider only a brief description of such mental phenomena.

All group mental phenomena can also be divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In contrast to individual mental phenomena, mental phenomena of groups and collectives have a clearer division into internal and external.

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1. Psychology as a science. Subject and tasks of psychology

Psychology - both very old and very young science. Having a thousand-year past, it is nevertheless still entirely in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline barely lasts a century, but it is safe to say that the main issues have occupied human thought since the very time when man began to think about the secrets of the world around him and learn about them.

Famous psychologist of the late XIX - early XX centuries. G. Ebbinghaus was able to say about psychology very succinctly and precisely: psychology has a huge background and a very short history. By history we mean that period in the study of the psyche, which was marked by a departure from philosophy, a rapprochement with the natural sciences and the organization of its own experimental method. This happened in the last quarter of the 19th century, but the origins of psychology are lost in the mists of time.

Psychology as a science has special qualities that distinguish it from other scientific disciplines. Few people know psychology as a system of proven knowledge, mainly only those who specifically study it, solving scientific and practical problems. At the same time, as a system of life phenomena, psychology is familiar to every person. It is presented to him in the form of his own sensations, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. We can directly detect basic mental phenomena in ourselves and indirectly observe them in other people.

Subject of study Psychology is, first of all, the psyche of humans and animals, which includes many subjective phenomena. With the help of some, such as sensations and perception, attention and memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person understands the world. Therefore, they are often called cognitive processes. Other phenomena regulate his communication with people and directly control his actions and actions. They are called mental properties and states of the individual (these include needs, motives, goals, interests, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities, knowledge and consciousness). In addition, psychology studies human communication and behavior, their dependence on mental phenomena and, in turn, the dependence of the formation and development of mental phenomena on them.

Man does not simply penetrate the world through his cognitive processes. He lives and acts in this world, creating it for himself in order to satisfy his material, spiritual and other needs, and performs certain actions. In order to understand and explain human actions, we turn to such a concept as personality.

In turn, mental processes, states and properties of a person, especially in their highest manifestations, can hardly be fully comprehended if they are not considered depending on the conditions of a person’s life, on how his interaction with nature and society is organized (activities and communication). Communication and activity are also therefore the subject of modern psychological research.

Mental processes, properties and states of a person, his communication and activity are separated and studied separately, although in reality they are closely related to each other and form a single whole, called human life.

The main task Psychology as a science is the study of objective psychological patterns (mental processes, psychological properties of personality and psychological characteristics of human activity).

This problem is solved primarily by general psychology, which studies the most general laws of the psyche as properties of the brain, expressed in the subjective reflection of the objective world.

At the same time, psychology sets itself the following mutually related tasks:

1. Study of qualitative (structural) features of mental processes as reflections of objective reality. “Psychology, as the study of the reflection of reality, as the subjective world, in a certain way contained in general formulas, is, of course, a necessary thing. Thanks to psychology, I can imagine the complexity of this subjective state” (I. P. Pavlov).

2. Analysis of the formation and development of mental phenomena in connection with the conditioning of the psyche by the objective conditions of human life and activity.

3. Study of the physiological mechanisms underlying mental processes, since without knowledge of the mechanisms of higher nervous activity it is impossible either to correctly understand the essence of mental processes or to master the practical means of their formation and development.

2. Basic principles of general psychology

General principles of psychology

The principle of reflection. Reveals an understanding of the essence of the psyche and its main functions, levels in the development of the human psyche. The originality of the human psyche - a special form of reflection - is due to many circumstances: the peculiarities of objective reality itself, perceived both by the senses and through speech; brain condition; physical and mental health of a person; the content and state of his psyche.

The principle of determinism. Explains the reasons for the development of the psyche, its source. The human psyche is determined by and is the result of the interaction of factors of biological, natural, and social nature. At the same time, the psyche is not just a product, but the result of the interaction and influence of social, biological and natural factors on a person. Thus, the psyche is capable of changing and developing.

The principle of activity. It guides the researcher when studying mental phenomena to take into account that external and other circumstances are reflected in a person’s consciousness consciously, purposefully, and not just mirrored.

The principle of development. Reveals the origins of the human psyche as a dynamic phenomenon. The psyche can be correctly understood if it is considered as the result of social interaction, the interaction of a person with the social and natural environment as a result of his activity and communication with other people, the result of his training and upbringing.

The principle of interconnection, unity. The identification of two facets of the manifestation of the psyche: subjective (what and how a person thinks, experiences, evaluates) and objective (real behavior, actions and deeds of a person, materialized and objectified results of his actions) gives grounds to assert that the most adequate understanding of the psyche is possible on the basis of its systems subjective and objective manifestations.

The principle of a holistic, systemic approach. It involves the understanding and study of interrelated and interdependent mental phenomena, orienting the specialist to the awareness of the psyche as a holistic integral phenomenon.

The principle of relative independence. It does not contradict the previous principle, but indicates that every mental phenomenon has its own uniqueness, both its physiological foundations and its own patterns of formation, functioning and development.

The principle of a personal approach, taking into account group and public interests and values. The study of the psyche is adequate only when taking into account the totality of personal and group characteristics people: their needs, interests, life and professional experience, abilities, taking into account the psychotypical and individual psychological characteristics of people.

The principle of unity. Orients specialists towards a meaningful, axiological analysis of the psyche of people, taking into account the specific historical conditions of their life and activities.

The most general fundamental concepts that reflect the essential properties and relationships of objects and phenomena of objective reality.

The category of image characterizes psychological reality from the perspective of cognition and is the basis for the formation of individual and social-group pictures of the world. This is a sensory form of a mental phenomenon. Being always sensual in its form, O. in its content may. both sensory (O. perception, O. representation, sequential O.) and rational (O. atom, O. world, O. war, etc.). O. is the most important component of the subject’s actions, orienting him in a specific situation, directing him to achieve his goal.

Motive category. A motive is 1) a material or ideal “object” that motivates and directs an activity or action; 2) the mental image of a given object. In a broad sense, it is something inside the subject that prompts him to action, the meaning of his actions realized by a person. With the help of motive, human behavior, his goals, values, and decision-making mechanisms can be described.

Category personality. There are quite a few approaches to understanding and explaining personality. This is due to the fact that the concept of “personality” is integral and any definition that existed previously and now highlights only its individual aspects.

Personality in a broad sense is a specific person, as a subject of activity, in the unity of his individual properties and social roles. In a narrow sense, this is the quality of an individual that is formed through a person’s life in society, in the process of his social development.

Personality is the most important among metapsychological categories. All basic categories are integrated into it, drawn to it: individual, image, action, motive, attitude, experience.

Action, like deed, is the true existence of a person, individuality is manifested in it. The action may be relatively independent or included as a component in. broader activity structures.

The Action structure includes 3 main components: a) decision making; b) implementation; c) control and correction.

* Basic (image, motive, action, attitude, experience, individual)

* Metapsychological. (consciousness, value, activity, communication, feeling, “I”)

4. Concept of method and methodology

The concept of method (from the Greek methodos - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality. The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which he can achieve the intended goal. Mastery of a method means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.

The doctrine of method began to develop in modern science. Its representatives considered the correct method to be a guide in the movement towards reliable, true knowledge. Thus, the prominent philosopher of the 17th century F. Bacon compared the method of cognition with a lantern illuminating the way for a traveler walking in the dark. And another famous scientist and philosopher of the same period, R. Descartes, outlined his understanding of the method as follows: “By method,” he wrote, “I mean precise and simple rules, strict adherence to which... without wasting mental energy, but gradually and continuously increasing knowledge, contributes to the mind achieving true knowledge of everything that is available to it." The main function of the method is to regulate cognitive and other types of activity as simple and accessible "tool" of scientific discovery. The famous Russian physicist, Nobel Prize winner L. D. Landau said that: "The method is more important than the discovery."

There is a whole field of knowledge that specifically deals with the study of methods, which is usually called methodology. Methodology literally means “the study of methods” (for this term comes from two Greek words: methodos - method and logos - doctrine). By studying the patterns of human cognitive activity, the methodology develops on this basis methods for its implementation. The most important task of the methodology is to study the origin, essence, effectiveness and other characteristics of methods of cognition.

5. Objective research methods

One of the main tasks of psychological science was the development of such objective research methods that would be based on the usual methods for all other sciences of observing the progress of a particular type of activity and on experimentally changing the conditions for the flow of this activity. They became the experimental method and the method of observing human behavior in natural and experimental conditions.

Observation method. If we study a phenomenon without changing the conditions under which it occurs, then we are talking about simple objective observation. There are direct and indirect observations. An example of direct observation would be studying a person's reaction to a stimulus or observing the behavior of children in a group if we are studying types of contact. Direct observations are also divided into active (scientific) and passive or ordinary (everyday). Repeated many times, everyday observations accumulate in proverbs, sayings, metaphors, and in this regard they are of certain interest for cultural and psychological study. Scientific observation presupposes a very specific goal, task, and observation conditions. Moreover, if we try to change the conditions or circumstances under which the observation is made, then this will already be an experiment.

Indirect observation is used in situations where we want to use objective methods to study mental processes that are not amenable to direct observation. For example, to establish the degree of fatigue or tension when a person performs a certain job. The researcher can use methods for recording physiological processes (electroencephalograms, electromyograms, galvanic skin response, etc.), which themselves do not reveal the peculiarities of the course of mental activity, but can reflect the general physiological conditions characterizing the course of the processes being studied.

In research practice, objective observations also differ in a number of other ways.

By the nature of the contact - direct observation, when the observer and the object of observation are in direct contact and interaction, and indirect, when the researcher gets to know the observed subjects indirectly, through specially organized documents such as questionnaires, biographies, audio or video recordings, etc.

According to the conditions of observation - field observation, which takes place in the conditions of everyday life, study or work, and laboratory observation, when a subject or group is observed in artificial, specially created conditions.

Based on the nature of interaction with the object, a distinction is made between included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group, and his presence and behavior become part of the observed situation, and non-involved observation (from the outside), i.e. without interacting or establishing any contact with the person or group being studied.

There is also open observation, when the researcher reveals his role to the observed (the disadvantage of this method is the reduction in the natural behavior of the observed subjects), and hidden (incognito), when the presence of the observer is not reported to the group or individual.

According to the goals, observation is distinguished: purposeful, systematic, approaching experimental in its conditions, but differing in that the observed subject is not limited in the freedom of his manifestations, and random, exploratory, not subject to any rules and not having a clearly defined goal. There are cases when researchers working in search mode managed to make observations that were not part of their original plans. In this way, major discoveries were made. For example, P. Fress describes how in 1888 a neuropsychiatrist drew attention to the complaints of a patient whose skin was so dry that in cold, dry weather she felt sparks jumping from her skin and hair. He had the idea to measure the static charge on her skin. As a result, he stated that this charge disappears under the influence of certain stimulations. This is how the psychogalvanic reflex was discovered. It later became known as galvanic skin response (GSR). In the same way, I.P. Pavlov, during his experiments on the physiology of digestion, discovered conditioned reflexes

6. The concept of the psyche. Psychic reflection activity

Even in ancient times, it was discovered that, along with the material, objective, external, objective world, there are immaterial, internal, subjective phenomena - human feelings, desires, memories, etc. Every person is endowed with mental life.

The psyche is defined as the property of highly organized matter to reflect objective reality and, on the basis of the mental image formed in this case, it is advisable to regulate the activity of the subject and his behavior. From this definition it follows that the main functions of the psyche are the closely interrelated reflection of objective reality and the regulation of individual behavior and activity.

Mental reflection is not mirror-like or passive - it is an active process associated with the search and choice of methods of action that are adequate to the prevailing conditions. A feature of mental reflection is subjectivity, i.e. mediation of a person’s past experience and his individuality. This is expressed, first of all, in the fact that we see one world, but it appears differently for each of us. At the same time, mental reflection makes it possible to build an “internal picture of the world” that is adequate to objective reality, in connection with which it is necessary to note such a property as objectivity. Only through correct reflection is it possible for a person to understand the world around him. The criterion of correctness is practical activity in which mental reflection is constantly deepening, improving and developing. An important feature of mental reflection is, finally, its anticipatory nature: it makes possible anticipation in human activity and behavior, which allows decisions to be made with a certain time-spatial advance regarding the future.

7. Origin and evolution of the psyche in phylogenesis

psychology behavior psyche phylogenesis

Origin and development of the psyche in phylogenesis. The main stages of mental development.

The development of the psyche is a natural change in mental processes over time, expressed in their number and quality of structural transformations. The development of the psyche has a way of accumulating changes; each stage of psyche begins with a complication of activity; a new form of psyche reflection makes it possible to further complicate this activity. To explain the emergence of the psyche in phylogenesis, Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev proposes a theory of activity. Actions are processes that carry out the active relationship of the subject to the action. He considered sensitivity, that is, the body’s ability to respond to biologically neutral, abiotic properties of the environment (for example, rustling in the bushes) to be an objective criterion for the appearance of the psyche. Where there is sensitivity, there is psyche. Sensitivity is irritability to conditions in which the processes of assimilation-dissimilation are not involved. Irritability is the ability of a living organism to respond to the biotic properties of the environment (where the processes of assimilation-dissimilation are involved).

Factors influencing the development of phylogenesis (complication of the psyche):

1. External factors - transition from life in a homogeneous environment to a terrestrial lifestyle;

2. Internal factors - complications of the anatomical structure - limbs, the appearance and development of the nervous system and brain. The more complex the form of mental reflection, the more complex the behavior.

Stages of mental development: 1 Elementary sensitivity or sensory psyche. Basic the form of reflection at this stage is sensations, and the form of behavior is taxis (mechanical movements, movements; innate species experience of animals), instincts, reflexes (if the cortex is formed) - protozoa mollusks, annelids; 2. Perceptual psyche - the main form of reflection is objective perception. Includes higher vertebrates: birds and some mammals. Here one can already detect an element of the form of thinking, a readiness to learn, to master methods of solving problems, memorize them and transfer them to new conditions. The transition to this stage is associated with a change in the structure of animal activity: activity is now directed not to the object itself, but to those conditions in which this object is objectively given in Wednesday P-r the cat goes directly to the food if there is no obstacle and goes around it immediately if there is one. This is how operations—a method of carrying out activities under given conditions—appeared for the first time. 3. Intelligence, basic. form of reflection - reflection of interdisciplinary connections (visual and effective thinking and generalization). This stage has been identified in primates; they can generalize, but cannot abstract. Basic form of behavior is intellectual. Traits of intellectual behavior: 1. the ability to solve 2-phase problems, consisting of a phase: preparation and completion. Leontyev: “Intelligence exists where there is a preparation phase” - this means that the preparation phase has no biological meaning” (monkey, stick, banana). Possibility of transferring the found solution to similar conditions without preliminary tests.3. presence of insight - insight, sudden finding of the right solution. 4. Availability of approximate research activities and use of tools. This periodization was improved by the domestic zoopsychologist Fabry.

He identified two stages of mental development in phylogenesis:

1. The stage of the sensory psyche, which was divided into lower (animals have developed irritability and elementary sensitivity - protozoa) and highest levels(sensations appear, important organs - the jaws and the ability to form simple reflexes).

2. The stage of the perceptual psyche, which was divided into lower (reflection occurs in the form of an image of objects, the formation of motor skills - fish, insects), higher (elementary forms of thinking, problem solving, good learning ability - birds, mammals) and highest (for primates , dogs, dolphins - intelligence phase) level.

8. Human consciousness and its structure. Consciousness and self-awareness - their relationship

Consciousness and self-awareness.

Self-awareness is defined as “a person’s awareness and assessment of his knowledge, moral character and interests, ideals and motives of behavior, a holistic assessment of himself as a feeling and thinking being, as an actor” (13).

Self-awareness allows a person to distinguish himself from the world around him. Self-awareness is a kind of reflection raised to the level of theoretical thinking. The formation of self-awareness is not possible without a person’s control over his actions and actions. Self-awareness is social in nature, because its formation is impossible without a person relating himself to other people. Self-awareness is inherent not only in the individual, but also in society when it rises to an understanding of its position in the system of productive relations, its common interests and ideals.

It is important to say that in psychology the process of formation of a human personality is unthinkable without the formation of consciousness and self-awareness, which are integral components of the human personality. The entire personality, all its diversity cannot, of course, be reduced to self-consciousness, but one should not be separated from one another either.

The history of the development of self-awareness is inextricably linked with the development of personality. Psychology identifies several stages of this development.

The first stage, according to psychologists, is associated with “mastery of one’s own body, with the emergence of voluntary movements that are developed in the process of forming the first objective actions.”

The second stage is associated with the beginning of walking in the child. Mastering the technique of walking and moving helps the child develop some independence. At this stage, a person begins to become, to some extent, an independent subject of action, standing out from his surroundings. This is where the individual’s self-awareness, the idea of his or her Self, is born. At this stage, a person becomes aware of himself only through relationships and interaction with other people. Knowing your Self is carried out through knowing other people. Here, self-awareness does not yet exist as a category inherent in the subject himself, that is, regardless of the awareness of another person or people.

At the third stage, the formation of self-awareness goes along with the development of speech, which plays an important role here. A child who has mastered speech has the ability to direct the actions of those around him at will and influence the world through other people. These changes in the child’s behavior lead to changes in his consciousness, behavior and attitude towards other people.

The development of the self is influenced by external events (the ability to self-service, the beginning of work) and internal ones (a person’s communication with others, the development of an internal attitude towards oneself and others). However, personal development does not end there.

In a broad sense, everything a person experiences is part of his personality.

If we have a narrow meaning in mind, then here only what has been experienced, independently understood and mastered by the personality can be attributed to the personality, to the Self, such as, for example, a thought that was a consequence of a person’s own activity. Here one involuntarily desires to draw a parallel with the philosophy of Rene Descartes, where the first obviously true position is the thesis “I think” as the subjective and personal experience of an individual.

It would not be amiss to mention in conclusion that a person is included in public relations and the personality is also determined by that social role, which, reflected in its self-consciousness, is included in the Self.

So, as you can see, self-awareness is not inherent in a person initially, but is a product of the development of the individual

As I have already said, when considering the personality as a thinking and experiencing something, the philosophy of Descartes comes to mind, where the central theme, practically the starting point, the beginning of the entire philosophy of Cartesianism is the personality, the subject.

9. The unconscious in the human psyche

The unconscious in the human psyche

Speaking about the structure of the unconscious and the role of the unconscious in the human psyche, it is useful to determine what it, the unconscious, is. Let's take the generally accepted formulation that the unconscious is a set of mental processes over which there is no conscious control. This includes unconscious motives, the meaning of which is suppressed or repressed, and stereotypes and behavioral automatisms, the control of which is unnecessary due to their development, and subliminal perception, not realized due to the large amount of information. And most importantly, here you can find those reserves of the psyche that open up access to hidden resources that make reality much of what previously seemed inaccessible.

Structure of the unconscious

For the first time, an experimental study of unconscious processes was carried out by Sigmund Freud, who identified the components of the id (It), ego (I) and superego (super-ego) in the structure of the psyche. Subsequently, the structure of the unconscious was expanded by Freud's student Carl Gustav Jung, who identified the levels of both the personal and collective unconscious. Also, the concept of the unconscious was supplemented by the psycholinguistic concepts of Jacques Lacan, who suggested that the unconscious is structured like language. In Soviet science, the concept of the unconscious in the human psyche was represented by the developments of D.N. Uznadze, who put forward the theory of “set” - the Soviet analogue of the concept of the unconscious, as well as the psychophysiological discoveries of I.P. Pavlova and I.M. Sechenov.

10. Concept of activity. Structure of human activity

If the behavior of animals is entirely determined by their immediate environment, then human activity is regulated from the earliest years by the experience of all mankind and the requirements of society. This type of behavior is so specific that psychology uses a special term to designate it - activity. What are the distinctive psychological features of this special, special human type of activity?

The first of these distinctive features is that the content of the activity is not determined entirely by the need that gave rise to it. If need as a motive gives impetus to activity and stimulates it, then the very forms and content of activity are determined by social conditions, requirements and experience. Thus, the motive that makes a person work may also be the need for food. However, a person, for example, operates a machine not because it satisfies his hunger, but because it allows him to produce the part entrusted to him. The content of his activity is determined not by need as such, but by the goal - the production of a certain product that society requires from him. Why a person acts in a certain way is not the same as why he acts. The motives that give rise to his activity are at odds with the immediate goal that governs this activity.

So the first one distinguishing feature activity lies in the fact that, generated by need as a source of activity, it is controlled by a conscious goal as a regulator of activity. This most important feature of activity was noted by K. Marx when he wrote: “The spider performs operations reminiscent of the operations of a weaver, and the bee, with the construction of its wax cells, puts some human architects to shame. But even the worst architect differs from the best bee from the very beginning in that, first than to build a cell from wax, he has already built it in his head. At the end of the labor process, a result is obtained that was already in the mind of man at the beginning of this process, that is, man not only changes the form of what is given by nature; what is given by nature, he at the same time realizes his conscious goal, which, like a law, determines the method and nature of his actions and to which he must subordinate his will."

In the above words, Marx notes another necessary feature of mental regulation of activity. For it to be successful, the psyche must reflect its own objective properties of things and determine by them (and not by the needs of the body) ways to achieve the goal. Finally, the activity must have the ability to control human behavior in such a way as to realize these goal-directed actions, namely, to stimulate and maintain activity, which in itself does not immediately satisfy the needs that arise, that is, is not accompanied by direct reinforcement. From this it is clear that activity is inextricably linked with cognition and will, relies on them, and is impossible without cognitive and volitional processes.

So, activity is the internal (mental) and external (physical) activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.

Thus, in order to be able to talk about activity, it is necessary to identify the presence of a conscious goal in human activity. All other aspects of activity - its motives, methods of implementation, selection and processing of necessary information - may or may not be realized. They may also be understood incompletely and even incorrectly. For example, a preschooler is rarely aware of the needs that push him to play, and a junior schoolchild is rarely aware of the motives for his educational activities. An undisciplined teenager is incompletely, and most often incorrectly, aware of the true motives of his actions. Yes, and adults sometimes take on faith secondary, “masking” motives that their consciousness “throws” at them to justify erroneous and unworthy actions or deeds.

Not only motives, but also many of the thought processes that led to the choice of certain plans of activity are far from being fully realized by a person. As for the ways of carrying out activities, most of them, as a rule, are regulated in addition to consciousness. An example of this can be any habitual action: walking, speaking, writing, driving a car, playing a musical instrument, etc.

The degree and completeness of reflection of all these aspects of activity in consciousness determine the level of awareness of the corresponding activity.

Whatever this level of awareness of the activity, awareness of the goal always remains a necessary feature of it. In cases where this sign is absent, there is no activity in the human sense of the word, but impulsive behavior takes place. Unlike activity, impulsive behavior is controlled directly by needs and emotions. It expresses only the affects and drives of the individual and therefore often has an egoistic, antisocial character. Thus, a person blinded by anger or irresistible passion acts impulsively.

Impulsivity of behavior does not mean its unconsciousness. But at the same time, only his personal motive is recognized and regulates behavior, and not its social content embodied in the goal.

Activity structure

Activity is a form of active relationship to reality through which a real connection is established between a person and the world around him. Through activity, a person influences nature, things, and other people. Realizing and revealing his internal properties in activity, he acts in relation to things as a subject, and in relation to people - as a person. Experiencing, in turn, their reciprocal influences, he discovers in this way the true, objective, essential properties of people, things, nature and society. Things appear before him as objects, and people as individuals.

Actions and movements

To detect the weight of a stone, you need to lift it, and to determine the reliability of a parachute, you need to descend from an airplane on it. By lifting a stone and descending by parachute, a person discovers their real properties through activity. He can replace these real action symbolic - say “the stone is heavy” or calculate the speed and trajectory of descent by parachute using the appropriate formula. But first there is always business, practical activity. In this activity, not only the properties of a stone or a parachute are revealed, but also the person himself (why he lifted the stone, used a parachute, etc.). Practice determines and discovers what a person knows and what he does not know, what he sees in the world and what he does not see, what he chooses and what he rejects. In other words, it determines and at the same time reveals the content of the human psyche and its mechanisms.

The goal towards which the activity is directed is, as a rule, more or less distant. Therefore, achieving it consists of a person’s consistent solution of a number of particular tasks that confront him as he moves towards this goal. So, for example, the labor activity of a worker as a whole is aimed at achieving a common goal - the production of certain products at the level of the required quality and specified labor productivity. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to successfully resolve certain current work tasks at each period of time, for example, grind a part, mark a workpiece, load raw materials into a machine, etc. Each such relatively completed element of activity, aimed at completing one simple current task, is called an action .

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Basic forms of the psyche: mental processes, properties, states.

Each person differs from others in that he has a personal psyche.

Psyche- this is a special form of reflection of reality, this is a systemic property of highly organized matter (the brain) to reflect the objective world as a subject, build pictures of this world in one’s consciousness and, on the basis of this, carry out self-regulation of one’s activities and behavior.

Forms of the psyche- mental processes, properties and states.

They can be individual and group, internal (mental) and external (behavioral).

Mental processes- these are forms of the psyche that ensure human cognition, activity and communication. They are cognitive (sensation. Perception, attention, thinking, memory, imagination, speech), emotional, volitional.

Mental properties of personality- these are the most significant and stable mental characteristics of a person (needs, interests, abilities, temperament as a manifestation of the NS type, character).

Mental states of the individual- a special characteristic of human activity over a certain period of time. They are caused by the external situation, well-being, individual characteristics of a person (state of distraction, excitement, balance, fatigue, activity, irritation, fun).

Mental processes, properties and states of a person, his communication and activity are studied separately, although in reality they are closely related to each other and form a single whole, called human life.

The main goal psychology is the study of the laws of human mental life at different stages of its development, the patterns of formation of the human psyche as an active participant in social progress.

Psychology is a science that studies the psyche in its development and manifestation in various types activities.

Tasks of psychology:

qualitative study of mental phenomena;
analysis of the formation and development of mental phenomena;
study of physiological mechanisms of the psyche;
promoting the systematic introduction of psychological knowledge into the practice of people’s lives and activities.

Subject and object of psychology

The subject and object of psychology are defined as follows.

Subject of psychology- This psyche as the highest form of relationship between living beings and the objective world, expressed in their ability to realize their motives and act on the basis of information about it.

At the human level, the psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that its biological nature is transformed by sociocultural factors. From the point of view of modern science, the psyche is a kind of mediator between the subjective and objective, it implements historically established ideas about the coexistence of the external and internal, bodily and mental.

Object of psychology- This patterns of the psyche as a special form of human life and animal behavior. This form of life activity, due to its versatility, can be studied in a wide variety of aspects, which are studied in various branches of psychological science.

They have as their object:

norms and pathology in the human psyche;
types of specific activities, development of the human and animal psyche;
human attitude to nature and society, etc.

The scale of the subject of psychology and the possibility of identifying various objects of research within it have led to the fact that currently, within the framework of psychological science, there are general psychological theories. oriented towards various scientific ideals, and psychological practice, developing special psychotechniques for influencing and controlling consciousness.

The presence of incommensurable psychological theories also gives rise to the problem of differences between the subject and the object of psychology. For a behaviorist, the object of study is behavior; for a Christian psychologist, it is a living knowledge of sinful passions and the pastoral art of healing them. for a psychoanalyst - the unconscious, etc.

The question naturally arises: is it possible to talk about psychology as a single science with a common subject and object of study, or should we recognize the existence of many psychologies?

Today, psychologists believe that psychological science is a single science, which, like any other, has its own special subject and object. Psychology as a science deals with the study of the facts of mental life, as well as the discovery of the laws to which mental phenomena are subject. And no matter how complex ways psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, changing its object of study and thereby penetrating ever deeper into its large-scale subject, no matter how the knowledge about it has changed and enriched, no matter what terms they are designated, we can identify the main blocks of concepts , which characterize the actual object of psychology, distinguishing it from other sciences.

The most important result of the development of any science is the creation of its own categorical apparatus. This set of concepts constitutes, as it were, the skeleton, the framework of any branch of scientific knowledge. Categories are forms of thinking, basic, generic, initial concepts; these are key moments, nodes, steps in the process of cognition of a particular sphere of reality.

Each science has its own complex, a set of categories; psychological science also has its own categorical apparatus. It includes the following four blocks of basic concepts:

mental processes- this concept means that modern psychology considers mental phenomena not as something initially given in a ready-made form, but as something that is being formed, developing, as a dynamic process that generates certain results in the form of images, feelings, thoughts, etc.;
— cheerfulness or depression, efficiency or fatigue, calmness or irritability, etc.;
mental properties of personality- its general focus on certain life goals, temperament, character, abilities. inherent in a person over a long period of his life, for example, hard work, sociability, etc.;
mental neoplasms- knowledge, skills and abilities acquired during life that are the result of an individual’s activity.

Of course, these mental phenomena do not exist separately or in isolation. They are closely interconnected and influence each other. For example, a state of vigor sharpens the process of attention, and a state of depression leads to a deterioration in the process of perception.

Brief historical sketch of the development of psychology

Since ancient times, the needs of social life have forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental make-up of people. In the philosophical teachings of antiquity, some psychological aspects were already touched upon, of which they were resolved either in terms of idealism or in terms of. Thus, the materialistic philosophers of antiquity, Democrat, Lucretius, Epicurus, understood the human soul as a type of matter, as a bodily formation formed from spherical, small and most mobile atoms.

Plato

The founder of idealism was (a large slave owner). He divided all people according to their advantageous qualities — intelligence(in my head) courage(in the chest) lust(in the abdominal cavity). All governing bodies have the mind of war - courage, slaves - lust. Plato is the founder not only of idealism, but also of dualism. But the idealist philosopher Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from the body. The soul, before entering the human body, exists separately in the higher world, where it cognizes ideas - eternal and unchanging essences. Once in the body, the soul begins to remember what it saw before birth. Plato's idealistic theory, which interprets the body and psyche as two independent and antagonistic principles, laid the foundation for all subsequent idealistic theories.

Aristotle

The successor of Plato's work was. He not only overcame dualism (a direction that recognizes two independent principles at the heart of the world - matter and spirit), but also is the founder of materialism(a direction that affirms the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness, the materiality of the world, the independence of its existence from the consciousness of people and its knowability). Aristotle tried to put psychology on the basis of medicine. But Aristotle was unable to fully explain human behavior only through medicine. The great philosopher Aristotle, in his treatise “On the Soul,” singled out psychology as a unique field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of the inseparability of the soul and the living body.

The works of Aristotle, Plato and other philosophers formed the basis for the works of philosophers of the Middle Ages of the 17th century. - This is the starting point from the materialism of philosophy.

History of psychology as experimental science starts in 1879 in the world's first experimental psychological laboratory, founded by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

Famous psychologist of the late XIX - early XX centuries. G. Ebbinghaus was able to say about psychology very briefly and precisely - psychology has a huge background and a very short history. History refers to that period in the study of the psyche, which was marked by a departure from philosophy, a rapprochement with the natural sciences and the organization of its own experimental method. This happened in the last quarter of the 19th century, but the origins of psychology are lost in the mists of time.

Rene de Cartes - biologist, doctor, philosopher. He discovered a coordinate system, put forward the idea of a reflex, the idea of reflexivity of behavior. But he could not fully explain the behavior of the organism and therefore remained in the position of dualism. Separate a person's inner world from his internal organs it was very difficult. The preconditions for idealism were created.

There was another approach to understanding the psyche in the history of psychology, developed by domestic psychologists in line with the philosophy of dialectical materialism in the Soviet historical period. The essence of this understanding of the psyche can be summarized in four words, the formal authorship of which belongs to V.I. Lenin (1870-1924). The psyche is a subjective image of the objective world.

General understanding of the subject of psychology

Each science has its own subject of research. Let's give short description approaches associated with a fundamental change in view on the subject of psychology.

Stages of development of psychology

Stage I- psychology as science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul. This long stage, called pre-scientific in the literature, is defined from the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. until the beginning of the 18th century.

Stage II- psychology as science of. It appears in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was a person's observation of himself and the description of facts. According to the new approach, a person always sees, hears, touches, feels, and remembers something. It is precisely such phenomena that psychology should study, since, unlike the soul, they can be experimentally studied, measured, scientifically generalized, and causal relationships and relationships can be established in them.

Stage III- psychology as behavioral science. Behaviorism took shape at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. in USA. “Behaviour” in English means “behavior”. The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely human behavior, actions, and reactions (the motives causing the actions were not taken into account).

However, many “traditional” psychologists have expressed serious objections to some of the original components of the behaviorist approach. Behavior and psyche are, although connected, but by no means identical realities. Thus, when exposed to the same stimulus, it is possible that there is not just one reaction, but a certain set of them, and, conversely, the same response is sometimes obtained in the presence of different stimuli. In psychology it is recognized, for example, that a person often looks at one thing and sees another, thinks about one thing, experiences another, says a third, does a fourth.

Stage IV- psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, manifestations and mental mechanisms.

Methods of psychology

To solve a set of problems in science, there is a developed system of means, directions, ways, and techniques.

Method is the path of scientific knowledge. The method by which the subject of science is learned.

Methodology- this is an option, a particular implementation of the method in specific conditions: organizational, social, historical.

The set or system of methods and techniques of any science are not random or arbitrary. They develop historically, change, develop, obeying certain patterns and methodological rules.

Methodology is not only a teaching about methods, rules for their selection or use. This is a systematic description of the very philosophy, ideology, strategy and tactics of scientific research. The methodology determines what exactly, how and why we study, how we interpret the results obtained, and how we implement them in practice.

Subject, principles and tasks of psychology

Many years ago, in the forests of Aveyron, in the south of France, hunters found a boy, apparently fed by some kind of animal and completely feral. Later, two girls were found in the jungles of India, abducted, as it turned out, by a she-wolf and nursed by her. Science knows dozens of such tragic cases. What is the tragedy of these incidents, since the children found were alive and physically quite healthy? Ike these children, who spent their early childhood among animals, did not have a single human quality. Even physically they resembled animals: they moved on all fours, ate like animals, tearing pieces of meat with their teeth and holding them with their two forelimbs, growling and biting everyone who came close to them. Their sense of smell and hearing were very developed, they detected the slightest changes in the forest environment. Making inarticulate sounds, they hurried to hide from people.

Scientists examined these children and tried to teach them human behavior, teach them to talk and understand human speech. But. as a rule, such attempts were unsuccessful: the time for intensive formation of basic human qualities was already irretrievably lost. A human being is formed as a person only in human society. And many human qualities are formed only in early childhood.

In terms of its biological organization, man is the result of an evolutionary process. The anatomical and physiological structure of his body is in many ways similar to that of higher primates. But man is qualitatively different from all living beings. His life activity, needs and ways of satisfying these needs differ from the life activity of animals. socio-cultural conditioning.

Man is a social being.

The natural characteristics of man changed in the process of his socio-historical development. The human world is a field of socially developed meanings, values, and symbols. He lives in the world of social culture, which forms his so-called second nature and determines his essence. All human activities from birth to the end of his life are regulated by the regulations, social norms, customs, and traditions accepted in a given society. An individual formed in society becomes socialized personality- a person included in the system of general social, cultural and historical achievements of mankind, his life activity is realized in certain social conditions. Each individual becomes a person to the extent that he masters universal human culture. He perceives the whole world as a world of humanly significant objects and interacts with them on the basis of socially developed concepts. “Man is the measure of all things,” the ancient Greek philosopher Prota Horus deeply noted. A person correlates everything in the world with his inner spiritual world: he experiences emotional excitement when contemplating distant stars, admires the beauty of forests, mountains and seas, appreciates the harmony of colors, forms and sounds, the integrity of personal relationships and sublime manifestations of the human spirit. A person actively interacts with the world - he strives to cognize and purposefully transform reality.

Animal behavior is predetermined by an innate, instinctive program of life. A person’s behavior is determined by his mental, socially formed world, in which strategic and tactical planning of his life activities is carried out, the joys and sorrows of his human existence are experienced. A person is able to compare the present with the past and future, think about the meaning of life, reflect - reflect not only the world around him, but also himself.

A person is endowed with such a socially formed mental regulator as conscience - the ability to control one’s command using general social standards, to evaluate one’s own self through the eyes of other people. A socialized individual is a socio-spiritual being. The spirituality of a person is manifested in his ability to rise above everything base, primitive and mundane, to maintain an unwavering commitment to his human dignity and duty.

Man is a complex and multifaceted being. It is studied by many sciences - biology, anthropology, history, cultural studies, sociology, etc. The study of the inner world of man, the general patterns of his interaction with the outside world is carried out by a special science - psychology.

The subject of psychology is a person as a subject of activity, the systemic qualities of his self-regulation; patterns of formation and functioning of the human psyche: his ability to reflect the world, cognize it and regulate his interaction with it.

Psychology studies the emergence and development of the psyche; neurophysiological foundations of mental activity; human consciousness as the highest form of psyche; patterns of transition from external to internal; the conditioning of the functioning of the psyche by socio-historical factors; patterns of formation of mental images of the world and the embodiment of these images in external, practical human activity; the unity of biological and social factors in human mental self-regulation; mental structure; reflective-regulatory essence of cognitive, volitional and emotional processes, individual psychological characteristics of the individual; psychological characteristics of human behavior in a social environment; psychology of specific types of human activity; and etc.

Every educated person should master the basics of general psychological knowledge. Knowing yourself is no less important than learning various aspects of the surrounding reality. Psychological knowledge is necessary for a person to properly organize his relationships with other people, effective organization their activities, self-analysis and personal self-improvement. It is no coincidence that the main commandment of ancient thinkers says: “Man, know yourself.”

The practical need for the application of psychological knowledge in various fields of human activity has caused intensive development, along with general psychology, of its applied branches: pedagogical, medical, legal, engineering, aviation, space, psychology of art, labor, military affairs, sports, management, marketing, etc. At the same time, the study of applied branches of psychology is possible only on the basis of general psychological knowledge.

Psychological knowledge is needed wherever there is a need for scientific organization of work and effective use of the resources of the human psyche. Psychologists work fruitfully in schools and clinics, in manufacturing, in cosmonaut training centers and management structures, the law enforcement system and think tanks for social development.

Problems of psychology

The main task of psychology is the knowledge of the psyche by revealing those objective connections from which mental phenomena first arose and began to be defined as objective facts. Therefore, psychological cognition is understood today as indirect cognition of the psyche through the disclosure of its essential connections with the outside world.

With this understanding of the essence of the psyche, it becomes obvious that of all the human sciences, the most practical is psychology. After all, studying it. You can discover a lot in the world around you, in yourself, and in other people.

Growing interest in internal spiritual world people is also connected with the fact that the modern era is increasingly revealing as a presenter a tendency towards integration of all aspects of life in modern society: economic, political and spiritual. This integrative tendency, the line towards strengthening the integrity of social development, is also manifested in the fact that today the traditional, very narrow, technocratic understanding of the tasks of economic activity is being replaced by modernized concepts that bring to the fore in economic activity not technological tasks, but humanitarian and psychological problems.

Workers engaged in the field of modern production are increasingly aware of their activities not only as the use of high technology, but also as an area in which participation requires from workers engaged in it managing oneself, other people, their communities.

This attitude has now become a truism for specialists, entrepreneurs, and managers in developed countries, both in the West and in the East.

The head of one of the largest American automobile companies, Li Ya Cocca, believes that “all business operations can ultimately be described in three words: people, product, profit. People come first."

Akio Morita- the head of a famous Japanese electrical company - claims that “Only people can make an enterprise successful”.

Thus, in order to be successful, a modern worker, businessman, manager, any specialist must provide a solution through his activities twofold task:

achieving economic results;
impact on the people creating this result.

Therefore, in modern conditions, for a domestic entrepreneur, manager, highly qualified specialist of any profile, as well as for every person, the most pressing task is the psychological improvement of work groups, production teams, and with them the entire society. Modern leader, a specialist, and any thinking person should know and take into account psychological factors activities of people and on this basis ensure the growth of labor and social activity.

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